Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and Synthesis of Historical Datasets

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Visualization Hyperphantasia Hypophantasia

Marks, D. F. (2023). Phenomenological studies of visual mental imagery: a review and synthesis of historical datasets. Vision, 7(4), 67. doi:10.3390/vision7040067

Abstract

This article reviews historically significant phenomenological studies of visual mental imagery (VMI), starting with Fechner in 1860 and continuing to the present. This synthesis of diverse VMI phenomenological studies in healthy adults serves as a unique resource for investigators of individual differences, cognitive development and clinical and neurological conditions. The review focuses on two kinds of VMI, “memory imagery” and “eidetic imagery”. Ten primary studies are drawn from three periods of the scholarly literature: early (1860–1929), middle (1930–1999) and recent (2000–2023). It is concluded that memory and eidetic imagery are two forms of constructive imagery, varying along a continuum of intensity or vividness. Vividness is a combination of clarity, colourfulness and liveliness, where clarity is defined by brightness and sharpness, colourfulness by image saturation and liveliness by vivacity, animation, feeling, solidity, projection and metamorphosis. The findings are integrated in a template that specifies, as a tree-like structure, the 16 properties of VMI vividness in healthy adult humans. The template takes into account the weight of evidence drawn from the accounts and reveals an extraordinary degree of consistency in reported VMI characteristics, revealed by specialized studies of healthy adult humans across time, space and culture.

Authors

David F. Marks3

What This Study Is About

This research looks back at over 160 years of history to understand how people experience visual mental imagery—the ability to "see" pictures in the mind. It explores how these inner experiences vary from person to person, ranging from those with aphantasia (no mental imagery) to those with "photographic" or eidetic memory.

How They Studied It

The researcher reviewed ten major historical studies conducted between 1860 and 2023. These studies included detailed personal accounts, questionnaires, and experiments. By comparing the experiences of hundreds of people across different eras and cultures, the researcher identified 16 specific characteristics that define how vivid a mental image feels, such as its brightness, color, and how long it lasts.

What They Found

The study found that mental imagery is not a single "on or off" switch but a constructive process that varies wildly between individuals. Key findings include:

Vividness is complex: It isn't just about how "clear" a picture is; it also involves how much effort it takes to hold the image and whether the image can move or change.

Consistency over time: Despite being from different centuries, people describe their inner worlds using very similar terms, suggesting these differences are a fundamental part of human nature.

The "Photographic" Myth: The research suggests that even "photographic" memory (eidetic imagery) is a creative process of the brain rather than a literal camera-like recording.

What This Might Mean

This suggests that aphantasia and hyperphantasia (extremely vivid imagery) are part of a natural spectrum of human experience. It highlights that our "inner lives" are highly personal; two people can look at the same object but remember it in completely different ways. However, because this study relies on people describing their own thoughts (phenomenology), there is always some uncertainty in how accurately words can capture a private mental experience.

One Interesting Detail

In the 1860s, Gustav Fechner—one of the fathers of psychology—discovered he had very poor mental imagery himself. He found that he could only "see" dim, fleeting images and was surprised to learn that others could see internal pictures as clearly as if their eyes were open.

Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and Synthesis of Historical Datasets

Abstract

Authors

Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and Synthesis of Historical Datasets

Abstract

Authors

Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and Synthesis of Historical Datasets

Abstract

Authors

Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and Synthesis of Historical Datasets

Abstract

Authors

What This Study Is About

How They Studied It

What They Found

What This Might Mean

One Interesting Detail

What This Study Is About

How They Studied It

What They Found

What This Might Mean

One Interesting Detail

Joel Pearson

Merlin Monzel

Adam Zeman

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Carla Dance

Jianghao Liu

Fraser Milton